职务代理的规则逻辑与体系构造研究

Study on the Logic and Institution Construction of Agency in Duty

传播影响力
本库下载频次:
本库浏览频次:
CNKI下载频次:0

归属院系:

民商法学院

作者:

王一君

摘要:

职务代理衍生于我国的民商事实践,其制度架构随着社会主义市场经济的日益发展而日臻完善,最终被原《民法总则》第170条正式确认并被《民法典》第170条所坚持。通过对原《民法总则》颁布后司法实践对职务代理适用情况之实证分析发现,职务代理制度的适用主要呈现如下四个特点:一是职务代理相关规范在司法实践中被适用的频率越来越高,其制度价值与制度独立性更加凸显;二是适用职务代理制度的频率与当地商事活动及经济活跃程度呈正相关关系;三是从民商事实践来看,职务代理广泛适用于合同类案件,尤其集中在买卖合同、建设工程施工合同、借贷合同、劳务合同、租赁合同等五大合同领域;四是司法实践中职务代理与职务侵权规则混淆适用问题比较突出。而在当前的学说理论与司法实践中,关于职务代理的争议焦点主要集中于四个方面:一是职务代理被代理人主体范围问题,包括职务代理被代理人的具体类型和司法认定问题;二是职务代理权限依据及职权限制的对外公示效力及对抗效力问题;三是职务代理制度显名原则的体现方式问题;四是职务代理制度责任承担及与其他商法制度衔接问题。显而易见,职务代理虽被《民法典》第170条所规定,但其规则逻辑尚待全面明晰,其制度体系亦待系统构建。有鉴于此,本文拟对职务代理独立存在的必要性、职务代理的性质与权源、职务代理的主体范围与职权范围、职务代理行为的效力判断、职务代理人的责任承担等系列问题进行深入研究,以期厘清职务代理的规则逻辑、建构其制度体系。全文共分六章,具体展开如下:第一章,职务代理独立存在的必要性。虽然自理论考证而言,我国职务代理制度深受前苏联民法的影响,但职务代理制度主要还是衍生于我国的社会主义市场经济实践,其具有浓厚的中国本土特色和雄厚的民商事实践基础。通说认为,从规范对象、法律效果、制度构建溯源等角度观之,原《民法通则》第43条最先规定了我国的职务代理制度,但该条规定存在职务代理适用主体的界定范围过于狭窄、职务代理规范行为的内容较为抽象、其关注的是责任归属而非法律效果归属、职务代理独立存在的法律地位尚未明晰等问题。后司法实践对原《民法通则》第43条有关职务代理之规定进行了突破。《民法典》第170条在融合民商事实践、学说理论与司法实务的立场上,全面确认与完善了职务代理,使得职务代理的规范对象得以扩展、主体关系得以完善、代理权限得以明晰、法律效果得以明确,且融入了代理法律制度。职务代理具有独特的制度价值,其能够弥补商事交易中法定代表人制度和委托代理人制度的不足,能够满足商事交易实践追求效率优先、兼顾公平的独特价值需求,能够增强交易结果的确定性和可预见性,促进交易秩序和商业信用。由此观之,职务代理制度具有独立存在的必要性,《民法典》第170条专门规定职务代理,职务代理与一般意定代理存在的巨大区别由此可见一斑。《民法典》第170条专条规定职务代理,使得我国原代理规则体系下意定代理的一元结构转变为一般意定代理与职务代理的二元结构,前者以扩张自然人经济活动空间为目的,后者以实现团体或企业经营者参与法律交易为使命。职务代理制度的确立是我国当前民商合一立法价值取向的反映与当前体系化立法技术的要求,也是对我国商事交易活动中法人组织、非法人组织等团体组织所表现出的商事性、层级性、组织性等特征的回应。第二章,职务代理的性质与权源。就职务代理的性质问题,学说理论有“法定代理说”“意定代理说”“结合说”三种观点。“法定代理说”认为职务代理制度的代理权来源于法律的直接规定;“意定代理说”认为职务代理制度的代理权来源于法人或非法人组织的授权;“结合说”认为职务代理制度的代理权来源兼具法定因素与意定因素。本文认为,职务代理理论上是与法定代理、一般委托代理并列的一种代理类型,职务代理是委托代理中一种独特的代理制度类型;职务代理虽孕育于委托代理制度之中,但因其具有特殊性而表现出相对独立的制度特征,最终成为一种特殊的委托代理制度。关于职务代理的权源,学说理论亦存在“授权行为说”、“职务说”、“同一说”、“区别说”等观点。其中,需重点关注的是授权行为的“有因性”与“无因性”。本文认为,职务代理授权行为的“有因性”与“无因性”的理论选择,可以分开进行,即针对我国职务代理制度授权行为的外部表达采用“无因性”理论,而在职务代理制度授权行为的内部关系中采用“有因性”理论。职务代理制度与法定代表制度是两种不同的制度,法定代表人和非法人组织的负责人以外的其他职务代理人执行法人或非法人组织工作任务时应适用职务代理制度,职务代理制度用以调整法人或非法人组织的一般工作人员以法人或非法人组织名义实施法律行为的效力。职务代理人之选任和授权均为被代理人意思自治的结果,《民法典》第170条并非对职务代理人予以法定授权,职务代理类型化之目的在于实现公示代理权范围的效果。职务代理权的具体类型包括经理权、商业辅助人权、企业法人分支机构负责人的职务代理权、团体组织批准用章流程中代理人的职务代理权、建设合同的项目经理的职务代理权、委任董事以及经理等非常态的职务代理人之代理权等其他职务代理权。第三章,职务代理的主体范围。虽然《民法典》第170条已从文义上明确我国职务代理制度适用的主体范围为执行“法人或非法人组织”工作任务的人员,但主体身份属性及具体类型的适配性问题还亟待探讨。学说理论对职务代理被代理人的主体身份是否应当限缩存在争论:支持“主体身份限缩说”的观点认为职务代理被代理人范围应限定在商事组织范围内;反对“主体身份限缩说”的观点认为我国职务代理制度的立法目在于规范各组织体工作人员以组织体名义参与市场经济活动的行为,只要市场组织体的工作人员以该组织体的名义参与市场经济活动,均应划入《民法典》第170条职务代理制度的规范范畴。通过对职务代理相关的民商事实践及司法实务的甄别可知:第一,不应将职务代理适用的主体范围作限缩解释,否则必将导致非营利法人、特别法人实际客观发生的大量、长期、稳定的以法人名义对外进行的采购行为都不能根据职务代理制度使法律效果归属于非营利法人和特别法人,不利于保护交易相对方和维系交易安全,《民法典》第170条的制度功能也将无从彰显。第二,将职务代理制度适用于非营利法人和特别法人时需注意两点:一是对非营利法人、特别法人履行管理职能、行政职责的行为,不适用职务代理制度;二是仅在非营利法人、特别法人以法人名义对外从事普通民事行为时,方能适用职务代理制度。第三,对非营利法人、特别法人违反法律法规、党内法规及纪律条例限制的民事行为,不能适用职务代理制度。第四,对于机关法人而言,职务代理制度的适用主体范围应当仅限定在机关法人中具有对外交易职能工作部门的机关工作人员,除此以外的其他工作人员虽也执行机关法人的工作任务,但不应适用职务代理制度。第五,非法人组织具有层级性、组织性特征,职务代理制度可以适用于全部非法人组织。第六,对于不属于法人及非法人组织的个体工商户,只要其经营规模具有组织性,个体工商户与其雇佣人员之间形成了长期、稳定的职务授权关系,也可以适用职务代理制度。第四章,职务代理的职权范围。“职权范围”是判断职务代理效力的关键,《民法典》未对“职权范围”的界定标准进行明确。由于职务代理在《民法典》中是作为委托代理的一种特殊制度类型,职务的授予是一种概括的授权行为。对于非日常的重大交易,执行法人或者非法人组织工作任务的人员对外以该法人或非法人组织之名义订立合同的,仍须取得该法人或非法人组织的特别授权,否则就是超越其职权范围的行为。职务代理职权范围的内在限制应解释为法定的限制和内部的限制。前者包括法律对部分特殊职务进行明确的限制,后者包括被代理人对代理人进行明确或者默示授权中存在的限制。职务代理职权范围限制的方式体现于三个方面,一是对职务代理权限范围的限制应为嗣后限制而非自始限制;二是对职务代理权的限制应以明示而非默示或推定的方式作出;三是对职务代理权的限制可向代理人、相对人作出,也可公告方式作出。职务代理权限范围的界定应从四个方面综合把握:一是法律法规对职权范围的强制性规定;二是经公示的内部约定的限制;三是商业交易习惯等通常意义的判断;四是相对人合理信赖利益原则的兜底判断。依据法律法规、商事交易习惯等判定经理权的权限范围,并受到基础性行为或结构性行为、法律行政法规、公司章程或合伙协议、交易习惯等对经理权职权范围的限制。商业辅助人的权限范围虽不如经理权职权范围广泛,其只能实施商主体所在行业的日常经营行为,并不能实施非日常经营以外的重大交易行为。除此之外,还可借鉴《德国商法典》第54条第2款有关限制代办人承担票据债务或对外举债等交易行为的规定。就职务代理人职权范围的外部识别与认定问题,被代理人与代理人之间就职务代理达成的内部限制,将以“职权”的形式存在并对外公开,同时基于此与相对人进行代理活动,构成职务代理的外部关系。职权与职务代理权的公开性之间具有较为紧密的关联性,我国职务代理权的公开性在一定程度上体现为代理人职权的对外表达与限制。公开性的方式包括权利外观和登记制度,前者立足于代理活动中相对人的视角,通过不同情形下相对人对职务代理行为权利外观的认知可能性及相应程度,来判断职务代理的规范结果与效力归属。后者可根据我国具体的国情和社会现实需要建立可操作、简单便捷的公示机制,包括登记和公示平台的建立。其中,对法人或非法人组织可以对涉及经理、财务、会计、重大项目、采购等重要岗位和职权进行登记。职务公示平台由法人或非法人组织建立,使交易相对人便捷地获悉职务代理人是否享有特定的职权。第五章,职务代理行为的效力判断。职务代理的效力判断包括对职权范围内的行为效力及职权范围外的行为效力判断。在职权范围内的职务代理行为效力判断存在两种解释路径,即侵权法解释路径和授权解释路径。在确定职权范围内行为效力规则时,职务代理在效果归属机制上与一般委托代理并无不同,进而当职务代理人在其职权范围内对外实施法律行为时,该法律行为显然有效且法律效果归属于被代理人,即由作为被代理人的法人或非法人组织承担职务代理人所为法律行为而生之法律效果。越权职务代理与表见代理的区别之所以模糊的原因有两点:一是因为在民商合一的立法体系下,未区分民事的表见代理与商事的表见代理;二是因为对《民法典》第170条与第172条的体系解释未实现统一。因职务代理更加追求效率和外观信赖保护,故在职务代理中,只要职务代理人无代理权且相对人为善意,就构成越权职务代理。与之不同,一般表见代理还需要其他构成要件。由此观之,《民法典》第170条第2款规定的越权职务代理与一般表见代理是特殊与一般的关系。职务代理人超越职权范围的行为类型主要包括两类:第一类是职务代理人超越职权范围的行为,超越职权范围是指依据法律、行政法规规定的,由法人、非法人组织的权力机构、决策机构、执行机构、法定代表人或负责人实施的事项,除此之外还包括从通常意义下依据交易习惯、一般认知等不属于其职务对应的职权范围,此类超越职权范围的行为乃职务代理人超越了对职权范围的法定限制,原则上对被代理人不发生法律效力,除非构成表见代理。第二类是职务代理人超越职权范围限制的行为,超越职权范围限制是指违反公司章程或公司内部机关决议、合伙协议、内部协议等方式对职务代理权的内部限制,此类型为对代理职权范围的意定限制。根据《民法典》第170条第2款的规定,超越职权范围限制的职务代理行为原则有效,除非被代理人能证明相对人知道或者应当知道该类限制存在。第六章,职务代理人的责任承担。若职务代理人系无权代理且不构成越权职务代理的情形下,应直接适用《民法典》第171条关于无权代理的规定。依照《民法典》第171条第4款规定,若相对人非善意时,无权代理人和相对人应依各自过错承担责任,该款的责任性质属缔约过失责任。在职务代理人无权代理的情形下,判断相对人恶意是判定无权代理人与相对人责任的前提。如果相对人明知或因重大过失而不知道行为人属无权代理,则其为恶意相对人,应由相对人和无权代理人按照各自过错程度分担责任。在相对人善意时,《民法典》第171条第3款的责任性质为履行利益,该款中的善意相对人判断标准采无过失标准。善意相对人有权选择请求行为人履行债务或赔偿损失。若相对人主张履行债务,则相对人与无权代理人之间构成法定之债,无权代理人须承担其有权代理时被代理人所承担的债之履行义务。就职务代理人与被代理人的利益冲突及责任承担问题,主要存在以下三种类型:一是职务代理人滥用代理权及与相对人恶意串通的情形;二是职务代理人自己代理和双方代理的情形;三是职务代理人越权代理或构成表见代理法律效果归属于被代理人的情形。利益冲突行为的构成要件包括职务代理人的代理行为违反忠实义务、无须第三人负担审慎的调查义务或者较高的主观标准、不以职务代理人过失或者被代理人损害为要件。董事、监事、高级管理人员等职务代理人造成被代理人利益损害的责任承担,可借鉴《合同编通则解释第一次征求意见稿》第22条第3款关于越权代表责任承担的规定,即先由公司承担,当公司不足以承担全部责任且不起诉责任人员时,相对人可请求由有过错的董事、监事、高级管理人员向自己直接承担责任。其他类型的职务代理人如营利法人的一般工作人员,机关、事业法人的一般工作人员之责任承担方式与董事、监事、高级管理人员等职务代理人的责任承担方式相类似。与此同时,因法人和非法人组织与职务代理人之间存在劳动、雇用、委任等关系,具有内部管理关系,职务代理人在承担经济责任后还应接受法人或非法人组织有关人事、绩效考核、政务、党纪等相关方面的追责。

语种:

中文

学科:

民商法学

提交日期

2024-01-13

引用参考

王一君. 职务代理的规则逻辑与体系构造研究[D]. 西南政法大学,2023.

全文附件授权许可

知识共享许可协议-署名

  • dc.title
  • 职务代理的规则逻辑与体系构造研究
  • dc.title
  • Study on the Logic and Institution Construction of Agency in Duty
  • dc.contributor.schoolno
  • B2017030105045
  • dc.contributor.author
  • 王一君
  • dc.contributor.affiliation
  • 民商法学院
  • dc.contributor.degree
  • 博士
  • dc.contributor.childdegree
  • 法学博士学位
  • dc.contributor.degreeConferringInstitution
  • 西南政法大学
  • dc.identifier.year
  • 2023
  • dc.contributor.direction
  • 民商法
  • dc.contributor.advisor
  • 孙鹏,张力
  • dc.contributor.advisorAffiliation
  • 民商法学院,民商法学院
  • dc.language.iso
  • 中文
  • dc.subject
  • 职务代理,性质权源,职权范围,效力判断,责任承担
  • dc.subject
  • Key Words: Agency in Duty;Nature and Source of Authority;Scope of Authority, Judgment of Validity; Assumption of Responsibility
  • dc.description.abstract
  • 职务代理衍生于我国的民商事实践,其制度架构随着社会主义市场经济的日益发展而日臻完善,最终被原《民法总则》第170条正式确认并被《民法典》第170条所坚持。通过对原《民法总则》颁布后司法实践对职务代理适用情况之实证分析发现,职务代理制度的适用主要呈现如下四个特点:一是职务代理相关规范在司法实践中被适用的频率越来越高,其制度价值与制度独立性更加凸显;二是适用职务代理制度的频率与当地商事活动及经济活跃程度呈正相关关系;三是从民商事实践来看,职务代理广泛适用于合同类案件,尤其集中在买卖合同、建设工程施工合同、借贷合同、劳务合同、租赁合同等五大合同领域;四是司法实践中职务代理与职务侵权规则混淆适用问题比较突出。而在当前的学说理论与司法实践中,关于职务代理的争议焦点主要集中于四个方面:一是职务代理被代理人主体范围问题,包括职务代理被代理人的具体类型和司法认定问题;二是职务代理权限依据及职权限制的对外公示效力及对抗效力问题;三是职务代理制度显名原则的体现方式问题;四是职务代理制度责任承担及与其他商法制度衔接问题。显而易见,职务代理虽被《民法典》第170条所规定,但其规则逻辑尚待全面明晰,其制度体系亦待系统构建。有鉴于此,本文拟对职务代理独立存在的必要性、职务代理的性质与权源、职务代理的主体范围与职权范围、职务代理行为的效力判断、职务代理人的责任承担等系列问题进行深入研究,以期厘清职务代理的规则逻辑、建构其制度体系。全文共分六章,具体展开如下:第一章,职务代理独立存在的必要性。虽然自理论考证而言,我国职务代理制度深受前苏联民法的影响,但职务代理制度主要还是衍生于我国的社会主义市场经济实践,其具有浓厚的中国本土特色和雄厚的民商事实践基础。通说认为,从规范对象、法律效果、制度构建溯源等角度观之,原《民法通则》第43条最先规定了我国的职务代理制度,但该条规定存在职务代理适用主体的界定范围过于狭窄、职务代理规范行为的内容较为抽象、其关注的是责任归属而非法律效果归属、职务代理独立存在的法律地位尚未明晰等问题。后司法实践对原《民法通则》第43条有关职务代理之规定进行了突破。《民法典》第170条在融合民商事实践、学说理论与司法实务的立场上,全面确认与完善了职务代理,使得职务代理的规范对象得以扩展、主体关系得以完善、代理权限得以明晰、法律效果得以明确,且融入了代理法律制度。职务代理具有独特的制度价值,其能够弥补商事交易中法定代表人制度和委托代理人制度的不足,能够满足商事交易实践追求效率优先、兼顾公平的独特价值需求,能够增强交易结果的确定性和可预见性,促进交易秩序和商业信用。由此观之,职务代理制度具有独立存在的必要性,《民法典》第170条专门规定职务代理,职务代理与一般意定代理存在的巨大区别由此可见一斑。《民法典》第170条专条规定职务代理,使得我国原代理规则体系下意定代理的一元结构转变为一般意定代理与职务代理的二元结构,前者以扩张自然人经济活动空间为目的,后者以实现团体或企业经营者参与法律交易为使命。职务代理制度的确立是我国当前民商合一立法价值取向的反映与当前体系化立法技术的要求,也是对我国商事交易活动中法人组织、非法人组织等团体组织所表现出的商事性、层级性、组织性等特征的回应。第二章,职务代理的性质与权源。就职务代理的性质问题,学说理论有“法定代理说”“意定代理说”“结合说”三种观点。“法定代理说”认为职务代理制度的代理权来源于法律的直接规定;“意定代理说”认为职务代理制度的代理权来源于法人或非法人组织的授权;“结合说”认为职务代理制度的代理权来源兼具法定因素与意定因素。本文认为,职务代理理论上是与法定代理、一般委托代理并列的一种代理类型,职务代理是委托代理中一种独特的代理制度类型;职务代理虽孕育于委托代理制度之中,但因其具有特殊性而表现出相对独立的制度特征,最终成为一种特殊的委托代理制度。关于职务代理的权源,学说理论亦存在“授权行为说”、“职务说”、“同一说”、“区别说”等观点。其中,需重点关注的是授权行为的“有因性”与“无因性”。本文认为,职务代理授权行为的“有因性”与“无因性”的理论选择,可以分开进行,即针对我国职务代理制度授权行为的外部表达采用“无因性”理论,而在职务代理制度授权行为的内部关系中采用“有因性”理论。职务代理制度与法定代表制度是两种不同的制度,法定代表人和非法人组织的负责人以外的其他职务代理人执行法人或非法人组织工作任务时应适用职务代理制度,职务代理制度用以调整法人或非法人组织的一般工作人员以法人或非法人组织名义实施法律行为的效力。职务代理人之选任和授权均为被代理人意思自治的结果,《民法典》第170条并非对职务代理人予以法定授权,职务代理类型化之目的在于实现公示代理权范围的效果。职务代理权的具体类型包括经理权、商业辅助人权、企业法人分支机构负责人的职务代理权、团体组织批准用章流程中代理人的职务代理权、建设合同的项目经理的职务代理权、委任董事以及经理等非常态的职务代理人之代理权等其他职务代理权。第三章,职务代理的主体范围。虽然《民法典》第170条已从文义上明确我国职务代理制度适用的主体范围为执行“法人或非法人组织”工作任务的人员,但主体身份属性及具体类型的适配性问题还亟待探讨。学说理论对职务代理被代理人的主体身份是否应当限缩存在争论:支持“主体身份限缩说”的观点认为职务代理被代理人范围应限定在商事组织范围内;反对“主体身份限缩说”的观点认为我国职务代理制度的立法目在于规范各组织体工作人员以组织体名义参与市场经济活动的行为,只要市场组织体的工作人员以该组织体的名义参与市场经济活动,均应划入《民法典》第170条职务代理制度的规范范畴。通过对职务代理相关的民商事实践及司法实务的甄别可知:第一,不应将职务代理适用的主体范围作限缩解释,否则必将导致非营利法人、特别法人实际客观发生的大量、长期、稳定的以法人名义对外进行的采购行为都不能根据职务代理制度使法律效果归属于非营利法人和特别法人,不利于保护交易相对方和维系交易安全,《民法典》第170条的制度功能也将无从彰显。第二,将职务代理制度适用于非营利法人和特别法人时需注意两点:一是对非营利法人、特别法人履行管理职能、行政职责的行为,不适用职务代理制度;二是仅在非营利法人、特别法人以法人名义对外从事普通民事行为时,方能适用职务代理制度。第三,对非营利法人、特别法人违反法律法规、党内法规及纪律条例限制的民事行为,不能适用职务代理制度。第四,对于机关法人而言,职务代理制度的适用主体范围应当仅限定在机关法人中具有对外交易职能工作部门的机关工作人员,除此以外的其他工作人员虽也执行机关法人的工作任务,但不应适用职务代理制度。第五,非法人组织具有层级性、组织性特征,职务代理制度可以适用于全部非法人组织。第六,对于不属于法人及非法人组织的个体工商户,只要其经营规模具有组织性,个体工商户与其雇佣人员之间形成了长期、稳定的职务授权关系,也可以适用职务代理制度。第四章,职务代理的职权范围。“职权范围”是判断职务代理效力的关键,《民法典》未对“职权范围”的界定标准进行明确。由于职务代理在《民法典》中是作为委托代理的一种特殊制度类型,职务的授予是一种概括的授权行为。对于非日常的重大交易,执行法人或者非法人组织工作任务的人员对外以该法人或非法人组织之名义订立合同的,仍须取得该法人或非法人组织的特别授权,否则就是超越其职权范围的行为。职务代理职权范围的内在限制应解释为法定的限制和内部的限制。前者包括法律对部分特殊职务进行明确的限制,后者包括被代理人对代理人进行明确或者默示授权中存在的限制。职务代理职权范围限制的方式体现于三个方面,一是对职务代理权限范围的限制应为嗣后限制而非自始限制;二是对职务代理权的限制应以明示而非默示或推定的方式作出;三是对职务代理权的限制可向代理人、相对人作出,也可公告方式作出。职务代理权限范围的界定应从四个方面综合把握:一是法律法规对职权范围的强制性规定;二是经公示的内部约定的限制;三是商业交易习惯等通常意义的判断;四是相对人合理信赖利益原则的兜底判断。依据法律法规、商事交易习惯等判定经理权的权限范围,并受到基础性行为或结构性行为、法律行政法规、公司章程或合伙协议、交易习惯等对经理权职权范围的限制。商业辅助人的权限范围虽不如经理权职权范围广泛,其只能实施商主体所在行业的日常经营行为,并不能实施非日常经营以外的重大交易行为。除此之外,还可借鉴《德国商法典》第54条第2款有关限制代办人承担票据债务或对外举债等交易行为的规定。就职务代理人职权范围的外部识别与认定问题,被代理人与代理人之间就职务代理达成的内部限制,将以“职权”的形式存在并对外公开,同时基于此与相对人进行代理活动,构成职务代理的外部关系。职权与职务代理权的公开性之间具有较为紧密的关联性,我国职务代理权的公开性在一定程度上体现为代理人职权的对外表达与限制。公开性的方式包括权利外观和登记制度,前者立足于代理活动中相对人的视角,通过不同情形下相对人对职务代理行为权利外观的认知可能性及相应程度,来判断职务代理的规范结果与效力归属。后者可根据我国具体的国情和社会现实需要建立可操作、简单便捷的公示机制,包括登记和公示平台的建立。其中,对法人或非法人组织可以对涉及经理、财务、会计、重大项目、采购等重要岗位和职权进行登记。职务公示平台由法人或非法人组织建立,使交易相对人便捷地获悉职务代理人是否享有特定的职权。第五章,职务代理行为的效力判断。职务代理的效力判断包括对职权范围内的行为效力及职权范围外的行为效力判断。在职权范围内的职务代理行为效力判断存在两种解释路径,即侵权法解释路径和授权解释路径。在确定职权范围内行为效力规则时,职务代理在效果归属机制上与一般委托代理并无不同,进而当职务代理人在其职权范围内对外实施法律行为时,该法律行为显然有效且法律效果归属于被代理人,即由作为被代理人的法人或非法人组织承担职务代理人所为法律行为而生之法律效果。越权职务代理与表见代理的区别之所以模糊的原因有两点:一是因为在民商合一的立法体系下,未区分民事的表见代理与商事的表见代理;二是因为对《民法典》第170条与第172条的体系解释未实现统一。因职务代理更加追求效率和外观信赖保护,故在职务代理中,只要职务代理人无代理权且相对人为善意,就构成越权职务代理。与之不同,一般表见代理还需要其他构成要件。由此观之,《民法典》第170条第2款规定的越权职务代理与一般表见代理是特殊与一般的关系。职务代理人超越职权范围的行为类型主要包括两类:第一类是职务代理人超越职权范围的行为,超越职权范围是指依据法律、行政法规规定的,由法人、非法人组织的权力机构、决策机构、执行机构、法定代表人或负责人实施的事项,除此之外还包括从通常意义下依据交易习惯、一般认知等不属于其职务对应的职权范围,此类超越职权范围的行为乃职务代理人超越了对职权范围的法定限制,原则上对被代理人不发生法律效力,除非构成表见代理。第二类是职务代理人超越职权范围限制的行为,超越职权范围限制是指违反公司章程或公司内部机关决议、合伙协议、内部协议等方式对职务代理权的内部限制,此类型为对代理职权范围的意定限制。根据《民法典》第170条第2款的规定,超越职权范围限制的职务代理行为原则有效,除非被代理人能证明相对人知道或者应当知道该类限制存在。第六章,职务代理人的责任承担。若职务代理人系无权代理且不构成越权职务代理的情形下,应直接适用《民法典》第171条关于无权代理的规定。依照《民法典》第171条第4款规定,若相对人非善意时,无权代理人和相对人应依各自过错承担责任,该款的责任性质属缔约过失责任。在职务代理人无权代理的情形下,判断相对人恶意是判定无权代理人与相对人责任的前提。如果相对人明知或因重大过失而不知道行为人属无权代理,则其为恶意相对人,应由相对人和无权代理人按照各自过错程度分担责任。在相对人善意时,《民法典》第171条第3款的责任性质为履行利益,该款中的善意相对人判断标准采无过失标准。善意相对人有权选择请求行为人履行债务或赔偿损失。若相对人主张履行债务,则相对人与无权代理人之间构成法定之债,无权代理人须承担其有权代理时被代理人所承担的债之履行义务。就职务代理人与被代理人的利益冲突及责任承担问题,主要存在以下三种类型:一是职务代理人滥用代理权及与相对人恶意串通的情形;二是职务代理人自己代理和双方代理的情形;三是职务代理人越权代理或构成表见代理法律效果归属于被代理人的情形。利益冲突行为的构成要件包括职务代理人的代理行为违反忠实义务、无须第三人负担审慎的调查义务或者较高的主观标准、不以职务代理人过失或者被代理人损害为要件。董事、监事、高级管理人员等职务代理人造成被代理人利益损害的责任承担,可借鉴《合同编通则解释第一次征求意见稿》第22条第3款关于越权代表责任承担的规定,即先由公司承担,当公司不足以承担全部责任且不起诉责任人员时,相对人可请求由有过错的董事、监事、高级管理人员向自己直接承担责任。其他类型的职务代理人如营利法人的一般工作人员,机关、事业法人的一般工作人员之责任承担方式与董事、监事、高级管理人员等职务代理人的责任承担方式相类似。与此同时,因法人和非法人组织与职务代理人之间存在劳动、雇用、委任等关系,具有内部管理关系,职务代理人在承担经济责任后还应接受法人或非法人组织有关人事、绩效考核、政务、党纪等相关方面的追责。
  • dc.description.abstract
  • The concept of agency in duty is derived from China’s civil and commercial practice. With the development of the socialist market economy, the rules relating to agency in duty have been gradually improved. Article 170 of the General Provisions of the Civil Law (2017) formalized and established the rules of agency in duty, which were succeeded by Article 170 of the Civil Code. By analyzing the judicial practice after the promulgation of the General Provisions of the Civil Law (2017), the application of the rules of agency in duty mainly presents the following four characteristics: First, the rules of agency in duty have been applied more frequently in judicial practice, and its institutional value and independence have been more emphasized. Second, the application of the agency in duty is positively correlated with the activeness of the local commerce and economy. Third, the agency in duty is widely applied in contracts, especially in the five major types: sale contracts, construction contracts, loan contracts, labor contracts and lease contracts. Fourth, there is confusion in judicial practice between the application of the rules of agency in duty and the rules of tort of duty. In the current academic theory and judicial practice, the core issues concerning the agency in duty are mainly concentrated in four aspects: Firstly, the subject scope of the agency in duty, including the definition of the specific types of authorization of the agency in duty and the judicial determination of this issue. Secondly, the basis of the authority of the agency in duty, and the external publicity, and effectiveness against third parties, of the limitation of the authority. Thirdly, the expression of the disclosure of the principal in the rules of agency in duty. Fourthly, the responsibility for unauthorized agency in duty and the connection with other institutions. Obviously, although the agency in duty is stipulated in Article 170 of the Civil Code, the logic of its rules has yet to be fully clarified, and its institution must be further constructed. Therefore, this article intends to study a series of problems of the rules of agency in duty, including the necessity of its independence, its nature and the source of authority, the scope of subjects and powers, the validity of the agency in duty, and the responsibility of the agent, in order to clarify the logic of the rules and to construct the institution. The article is divided into six chapters, which are summarized below:Chapter I, the necessity of the independence of the rules of agency in duty. Although China’s agency in duty rules are deeply influenced by the former Soviet Union Civil Law, the institution is still mainly derived from China’s socialist market economy practice, and has a distinct Chinese local characteristic and a strong foundation in civil and commercial practice. It is generally believed that, from the point of view of the object of regulation, legal effect and institutional construction, Article 43 of the General Principles of Civil Law (1986) first stipulated the system of agency in duty in China. However, the provisions of this article had certain limitations. For example, the scope of the subject was too narrow, the normative content of the behavior was abstract, only concerned about the responsibility rather than the legal effect, and the independent legal status of the agency in duty was not yet clear. Subsequently, the judicial practice made the breakthrough. By combining civil and commercial practice, academic theory and judicial practice, Article 170 of the Civil Code comprehensively establishes and improves the rules of agency in duty. In this case, the object of regulation of agency in duty has been expanded. At the same time, the subject relationship, authority and legal effect of agency in duty have been further clarified. Nowadays, the rules of agency in duty have been incorporated into the legal institution of agency. Agency in duty has a unique institutional value. It can make up for the inadequacy of the legal representative institution and general entrusted agency institution in commercial transactions, and can satisfy the unique value of commercial transaction in pursuit of efficiency priority, considering the needs of fairness. The rules of agency in duty can enhance the certainty and predictability of the results of the transaction, which is beneficial to the order of the transaction and commercial credit. From this point of view, the institution of agency in duty has the necessity of independence. Article 170 of the Civil Code specifically provides for agency in duty. This reflects that there is a great difference between agency in duty and general intentional agency. These specific provisions also transform the legal institution of agency in China from a one-dimensional structure to a two-dimensional structure in which the general intentional agency and the agency in duty coexist. The intentional agency aims at expanding the space of economic activities of natural persons, while the agency in duty takes the mission of realizing the participation of groups or business operators in legal transactions. The establishment of the agency in duty system is the reflection of the current legislative value orientation of China’s civil-commercial unity, but also the requirements of the current systematic legislative technology. It responds to the commercial, hierarchical and organizational characteristics of legal organizations and unincorporated organizations in China’s commercial transaction activities.Chapter II, the nature of agency in duty and its source of authority. Regarding the nature of agency in duty, there are three points of view in the academic theory, namely “statutory agency theory”, “intentional agency theory” and “combined theory”. The “statutory agency theory” believes that the agency in duty comes directly from the provisions of the law. The “intentional agency theory” holds that the agency in duty derives its authority from the authorization of the legal person or unincorporated organization. The “combined theory” holds that the source of agency in duty has both legal and intentional factors. In this article, it is argued that agency in duty is theoretically a type of agency alongside statutory agency and general entrusted agency. Among them, the entrusted agency is the superior concept of the agency in duty. Although the agency in duty was born in the entrusted agency institution, but it has special characteristics, and shows relatively independent institutional characteristics, eventually become a special entrusted agency institution. About the source of authority of the agency in duty, the academic theories also coexist, including “authorization theory”, “duty theory”, “authorization-duty identity theory”, and “authorization-duty difference theory”. Behind these academic theories, the focus is on the “causality” and “abstractness” of the authorization. In this article, it is believed that the choice of “abstractness theory” and “causality theory” of authorization of agency in duty can be carried out separately. For the external expression of the authorization of the agency in duty institution in China, the abstractness theory can be adopted, while in the internal relationship of the authorization, the causality theory can be adopted. The sources of authority of agency in duty can be discussed by comparing extraterritorial experience and sorting out relevant theories. On this basis, the comprehensive judgment can be made in relation to the nature of agency in duty. The institution of agency in duty and the institution of legal representation are two different institutions. The rules of agency in duty should apply to agents other than legal representatives and heads of unincorporated organizations. Agency in duty aims at adjusting the effectiveness of the middle and lower-level staff within a legal person or unincorporated organization in completing legal acts in the name of the legal person or unincorporated organization. The selection and authorization of an agent in duty is the result of the autonomy of the represented organizations, whereas Article 170 of the Civil Code does not provide for statutory authorization. The purpose of the typology of agency in duty is to achieve the effect of publicizing the scope of the right of agency. The following specific types of agencies in duty may include: manager’s authority, business assistant’s authority, authority of the head of a branch office, authority of the approver of the seal process, authority of the project manager under a construction contract, authority of a non-conventional position such as appointed director and manager, and authority of the agent in the shareholders’ representative lawsuit.Chapter III, the scope of the subject of agency in duty. Although Article 170 of the Civil Code makes it clear that the institution of agency in duty in China applies to “person who performs tasks for a legal person or an unincorporated organization”, the question of specific subject’s applicability must be further studied. Theoretically, there is a debate about whether the organizations to which the agency in duty rules apply should be limited. Those in favor of limitation argue that the scope of the agent in duty should be limited to commercial organizations. Those who oppose the limitation believe that, the legislative purpose of the institution of agency in duty in China is to regulate the staff of various types of organizations to participate in the market economic activities in the name of the organization. Therefore, the organizations participating in the market economic activities should be classified into the scope of regulation of Article 170 of the Civil Code. The following conclusions can be drawn from the evaluation of civil and commercial law and judicial practice in relation to agency in duty. Firstly, it is recommended that the scope of subjects to which agency in duty applies should not be interpreted in a restrictive manner. Otherwise, if a legal entity makes numerous substantial, continuous, and consistent purchases on behalf of a non-profit or special legal person, the purchases cannot be credited to that non-profit or special legal person under the agency in duty institution. Such scenarios do not support the safeguarding of the parties involved and the upholding of transaction security. Therefore, Article 170 of the Civil Code cannot fulfil its institutional function. Secondly, when implementing the agency in duty rules for non-profit and special legal persons, it is imperative to note two key factors. One is that the agency in duty rules must not be applied to non-profit and special legal persons when performing their management functions and administrative duties. And the other is that the agency in duty rules should only be applied to non-profit and special legal persons performing ordinary civil acts under the legal entity’s name. Thirdly, the agency in duty rules should not be applied to civil acts of non-profit and special legal persons that violate laws, regulations, party regulations, and disciplinary regulations. Fourthly, the scope of application of the agency in duty rules for a state organ legal persons should be restricted to its staff who are responsible for conducting foreign transactions. Other members of staff, who may undertake duties of the agency, are not covered by the agency in duty rules. Fifthly, since unincorporated organizations are profit-making, hierarchical, and organizational in nature, the rules of agency in duty can be applied to all unincorporated organizations. Sixthly, it is possible to implement the agency in duty rules industrial and commercial households who are not legal entities or unincorporated organizations, given that their operations are well-organized and there exists a stable, long-term relationship of authorization to perform duties between the entrepreneur and their employees.Chapter IV, the scope of authority of agency in duty. The scope of authority is the key to determining the validity of agency in duty. The Civil Code does not clarify the standard for defining the “scope of authority”. In the Civil Code, agency in duty is a special situation of entrusted agency, and the granting of duties is a general authorization. For non-routine major transactions, when a person performing the work of a legal person or an unincorporated organization enters into a contract in the name of the legal person or the unincorporated organization, he or she shall still obtain special authorization from the legal person or the unincorporated organization. Otherwise, the entry into the contract will be deemed to have exceeded the scope of his or her authority. The limitations inherent in the scope of authority of the agency in duty should be interpreted as statutory limitations and internal limitations. The former includes explicit limitations imposed by law on some special duties, and the latter includes limitations existing in the organization’s express or implied authorization of the agent. The limitations on the authority of the agency in duty are made: firstly, subsequently rather than from the beginning; secondly, expressly rather than implicitly or presumptively; and thirdly, to the agent or the counterparty, or by public announcement. In determining the scope of the authority of the agency in duty, four principles must be observed: first, the mandatory provisions of laws and regulations on the scope of authority; second, the limitations imposed by publicly known internal agreements; third, the usual sense of commercial transaction habits; and fourth, the principle of reasonable reliance on the interests of the counterparty for catch-all judgement. The scope of manager’s authority is determined in accordance with laws, regulations and commercial transaction customs, and is subject to the limitations on basic or structural behaviors, laws and administrative regulations, articles of association or partnership agreements, and transaction practices. The scope of business assistant’s authority is not as broad as that of manager’s authority. A business assistant may only perform routine business acts in the industry to which the business entity belongs, but not non-routine business acts. In addition, the provisions of Section 54(2) of the German Commercial Code (HGB) on the limitation of legal acts may be considered, such as the assumption of debts on instruments or the carrying out of borrowings by the nominee. Regarding the external determination of the scope of authority of the agent in duty, the internal agreements and limitations on the agency reached between the organization and the agent will exist in the form of “authority” and will be made public. Conducting agency activities with the counterparty based on such authority constitutes the external relationship of the agency in duty. There is a close correlation between authority and disclosure of agency in duty. The disclosure of agency in duty in China is somewhat reflected in the external expression and limitations of the agent’s authority. The ways of disclosure include the appearance of rights and the registration system. The former is based on the perspective of the counterparty in the agency activity. Under different circumstances, the counterparty’s understanding of the appearance of the rights will serve as the basis for judging the results and effectiveness of the agency in duty. The latter can be based on China’s specific national conditions and the needs of social reality, and a practical, concise and convenient disclosure mechanism can be established, including the establishment of registration and disclosure platforms. Among other things, legal persons or unincorporated organizations may register and make public the personnel and authority of important positions involving managers, financial personnel, accounting personnel, persons in charge of major projects, procurement personnel and so on. The platform for the disclosure of agency in duty is established by legal persons or unincorporated organizations to enable counterparties to be informed conveniently of whether an agent in duty has a particular authority.Chapter V, judging the validity of agency in duty. Judgment of the validity of the agency in duty entails the judgment of the validity of the acts within and outside the scope of authority. There are two interpretative paths, namely the tort law and the authorization, for judging the validity of an act of agency in duty within the scope of authority. When establishing the standards for the validity of acts within its scope of authority, the institution of agency in duty operates the same mechanism of effect attribution as the general entrusted agency institution. In addition, executing a legal act within one’s authority as the agent in duty results in the act being deemed valid and its legal consequences being attributed to the principal. The legal person or unincorporated organization assumes responsibility for the legal consequences of the agent’s acts. Differentiating between agency in duty and apparent agency is challenging due to two factors. Firstly, the civil and commercial legislative system lacks a distinct differentiation between civil and commercial apparent agencies. Secondly, Article 170 and Article 172 of the Civil Code have conflicting interpretations. Since the commercial agency in duty prioritizes efficiency and upholding trust in appearance, it constitutes apparent agency as long as the agent does not have the authority to act and the counterparty is acting in good faith. General apparent agency requires additional elements beyond agency in duty. According to Article 170 (2) of the Civil Code, there is a special-general relationship between apparent agency in duty and general apparent agency. An agent’s acts beyond their scope of authority can generally be classified into two categories. Exceeding one’s scope of authority involves carrying out tasks that should be performed by the authority body, decision-making body, executive body, legal representative or person in charge of a legal person or an unincorporated organization, as stipulated by the applicable laws and administrative regulations. In addition, the relevant acts may also include those that are not within the scope of authority of their positions as commonly understood according to trading customs, general cognition and so on. Exceeding the scope of authority of duty refers to acts in which the agent surpasses the legal limits on their authority. As a rule, such acts have no legal consequences on the principal, except when they act as the apparent agency. The second category pertains to acts conducted by an agent that surpasses the limitation of authorized responsibility. It means to infringe upon intentional limitations of authority that have been put in place through articles of association, internal company resolutions, partnership agreements, and internal agreements. This category involves intentional limitations on the scope of the agency in duty. Article 170(2) of the Civil Code stipulates that acts of agency in duty exceeding the limitations of authority are in principle valid, unless it is proved that the counterparty was aware of or should have been aware of the limitations. Chapter VI, responsibility of the agent in duty. When an agent in duty is not authorized to act and his or her agency does not constitute an apparent agency in duty, the provisions of the Civil Code on unauthorized agency are directly applicable. If the counterparty is not acting in good faith, the unauthorized agent and the counterparty are liable in accordance with their respective faults, as stipulated in Article 171(4) of the Civil Code. The nature of responsibility in this paragraph is contractual negligence. Except in the situation involving the manager’s authority, establishing that the counterparty is in bad faith is a premise for determining the liability of the agent in duty without authority and the counterparty. If the counterparty knows, or because of gross negligence does not know, that the agent does not have the authority to act, the counterparty is in bad faith. The counterparty and the unauthorized agent will be liable in accordance with their respective faults. When the counterparty is in good faith, the liability under Article 171(3) of the Civil Code is by nature liability for the performance of benefits. The no-fault standard is adopted for determining the bona fide counterparty in this paragraph. The bona fide counterparty has the right to choose to request the agent to perform the obligations or to compensate for the loss. If the counterparty claims for performance of the obligations, the counterparty and the unauthorized agent will be in a statutory debt relationship. The unauthorized agent needs to bear the obligation to perform the debt that the represented entity should be liable for when he or she has the authority to act. Conflicts of interest between an agent and his/her principal typically fall into three categories. The first is where the agent abuses his/her power or colludes with a third party. The second occurs when the agent acts on behalf of the principal while performing legal acts of his/her own or of the counterparties. The third may arise when an agent exceeds his/her authority or acts as an apparent agent and the legal consequences are attributed to the principal. The constitutive requirements of such conflicts of interest include a breach of the duty of loyalty by the agent, the need for a third party to exercise the obligation of due diligence, or a higher subjective evaluation standard. However, in assessing the existence of conflicts of interest, subjective evaluations such as the agent’s fault or the principal’s losses are not taken into account as constitutive requirements. Liability for losses caused to principal by the acts of agents such as directors, supervisors and senior managers is discussed in Article 22 (3) of the Interpretation of the General Principles of Contract Compilation. After assuming civil liability, the company may recover losses from the negligent legal representative under this provision. Other types of agents, including the general staff of the state organ legal persons, institution legal persons, and profit-making legal persons, are also liable in a manner similar to that of directors, supervisors and senior managers. Furthermore, according to the internal management relations, including labor relations, employment relations, and entrustment relations, between legal persons/unincorporated organizations and their agents, the latter should be subject to personnel supervision, performance avaluation, government affairs, party discipline, and other related aspects when assuming civil liability.
  • dc.date.issued
  • 2023-11-23
  • dc.date.oralDefense
  • 2023-11-19
回到顶部