两汉郡县官吏司法权研究

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归属学者:

胡仁智

作者:

胡仁智

导师:

陈金全

导师单位:

西南政法大学

学位:

博士

语种:

中文

关键词:

两汉;郡县制;郡县司法官;司法权;司法活动

摘要:

传统中国的国家权力中并不存在现代意义上独立的司法权、司法机构、职业化的法官群体和相对独立的司法运作,但从法人类学的角度来看却存在着司法、司法官吏和司法运行。司法官吏是法律的掌握者和实施者,正是他们将国家法律加以推行和实施,从而实现法律对社会的控制。传统中国社会伴随着法律的产生而产生了司法官,自司法官产生伊始,其就成为倍受关注的对象。司法之人及其对法的施行是中国传统法律文化的核心论题之一。从古老的文化典籍《尚书》到先秦诸子,再到历朝历代,司法之人与法的关系一直是哲人们不断讨论的话题。然而对于中国历史上的司法官吏相关的问题的研究却一直没有受到当代法律史学界的足够重视。汉代是传统中国法制的重要成长时期。汉代法制的成长与其政治体制密切相关。两汉继承了萌芽于春秋、初步形成于战国,确立于秦王朝的以中央集权为核心的“郡县齐民式权力分层分科”的官僚政体,并在此基础上进一步发展,从而形成了以郡县为行政司法重心的地方法政体制。在此法政体制下,郡县“长吏”由中央政府任命,郡县官吏依照国家颁布的统一法律令行使对所辖区域的统治权,其中最重要的是刑事司法权。郡县官吏管辖所辖区域内的普通刑事案件,具有广泛的刑事司法权,他们“听告”、“治狱”、“决狱”并执行各类刑事案件的判决,国家刑事司法权力的启动、终结、实现,大多数情况下是在郡县层级完成的。因此,历史上有所谓汉代“郡县守令有专杀之权”的说法,其比较形象地说明了汉代郡县刑事司法在国家司法体制中的重心地位。而在两汉漫长的四百余年的历史中,随着政治路线、文化路线、社会结构及制度内容本身的发展变迁,有诸多因素对两汉地方司法形成复杂的影响,郡县官吏的“专杀”之权呈现出十分复杂的型态。然而,迄今为止,学界对两汉地方刑事司法的研究却十分薄弱,而更为深入地以郡县官吏的刑事司法权为基点,研究两汉地方司法的论著则基本阙如。因此,本文以两汉郡县官吏的刑事司法权为研究基点,通过对两汉郡县司法重心地位的形成,两汉郡县司法官吏的组成,两汉郡县官吏司法权能的构成,两汉郡县官吏司法权的运行,两汉郡县官吏司法权的制约,两汉郡县官吏的司法风格,影响两汉郡县官吏司法权运行的因素等七大问题的考察,全方位,多层次地描述和解释两汉地方司法制度。 全文由引论、正文、结语构成。正文部分包括七章: 第一章两汉郡县司法重心地位的形成。本章旨在考察两汉郡县司法重心地位形成的历史渊源和现实基础。包括三个大的方面:一是郡县制的萌芽与确立;二是汉以前郡县司法在国家司法体制中的地位;三是两汉郡县司法重心地位的形成及主要表现。自春秋战国以来,随着县制的形成和发展,县逐渐成为地方司法的重心,这种司法权力结构的基本格局一直保持到秦王朝建立以后。汉初的地方司法权力结构依然以县为重心,县是国家司法权力运行的基础和关键环节:县具有对普通刑事案件的侦查、检察、审判、执行权:国家法律对司法程序的规定主要是针对县官吏而设置的。春秋战国时期直至秦王朝和汉初,郡的功能主要是军事上的。“郡”虽然具有一定的司法权,但并不如“县”全面广泛。西汉中期以后,随着中央集权制度的进一步加强,“郡”于国家治理中的地位日益突出,司法权日益扩大,特别是对重大恶性刑事案件的处断方面,“郡”具有了比较大的权力,到汉代后期,甚至出现郡守专权“不委令长”的情况。总体上看,两汉国家的司法权力结构于地方上体现为“郡县守令有专杀之权”,而郡县守令的专杀之权,一般情况下是由法律所规定的。两汉国家司法格局基本上体现为“官吏守文、大臣释滞、皇帝权断”。也即,从法律的规定来看,以郡县“守令”为主体的地方司法官吏主要在法律规定的范围内行使对刑事案件的司法权;以“廷尉”为主体的中央司法官吏则主要发挥“决疑”的功能;皇帝对普通刑事案件的司法权则体现为对郡县官吏不能决的刑事案件的最终处断权,而这些均不同于汉以后逐渐形成的刑事审级制度。 第二章两汉郡县司法官吏的组成。本章旨在考察两汉郡县官吏中那些官吏具有刑事司法权力以及他们之间的权力结构关系。包括两个大方面:一是县司法官吏的组成;二是“郡”司法官吏的组成。通过对传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合分析考辨,可见:两汉具有刑事司法权的县官吏主要包括县(道)令、长,县丞,县尉及县的属吏中的令史、狱史、尉史、士吏、官啬夫、牢监、求盗、贼捕掾、盗曹掾、乡啬夫、亭长(校长)、游徼、乡佐等。县(道)令、长,县丞,县尉是汉代县(道)“长吏”;汉代县令、长,县丞,县尉的刑事司法权来源于法律的规定;县“长吏”在行使刑事司法权时是既合作又分工的关系;汉代县长吏的设置一般情况是每县设一名令(长)、一名县丞、二名县尉(左尉、右尉),但某些特殊的县的丞、尉设置却有所不同;汉代县长吏的任用主要以“功”和“廉”为据,而一些从事基层司法工作的法吏,可以因为司法工作方面的特殊贡献而被破格提升为县长吏。县属吏包括县“长吏”之下的“少吏”和乡、亭吏;各县所属司法官吏在名目上基本统一,具体的设置数目则不等;汉初县属吏之名目和西汉后期及东汉时代相比略有不同,西汉后期至东汉时代,县之属吏名目可能有所变化和增加。具有司法职能的郡官吏主要包括郡守、郡丞、郡守丞、都吏、卒史、督邮、决曹、贼曹掾、书佐等。郡太守、郡“丞”、郡“守丞”的“治狱”、“断狱”、“谳狱”权,于汉初法律有所规定;郡属吏中所包括的“都吏”、“毋害吏”与“督邮”,他们之间既有联系又有区别,从汉初“都吏”的司法权到西汉中后期“督邮”的专门“监县”权,反映了国家对县司法监察力度的加强和“郡”府所属吏员分工的细化;汉初,“郡”府所属法吏的配置与县相比较为单一;西汉中期以后郡的司法官吏的名目有所增加。从汉简反映的情况来看“督邮”、郡“决曹”、“贼曹掾”之类的出现可能是西汉中后期的事,从中可见汉初县的司法重心地位和西汉中期以后,郡的司法官吏权力的扩大。 第三章两汉郡县官吏司法权的构成。本章旨在考察两汉郡县官吏所具有的主要刑事司法权能。包括两个大的方面:一是县官吏的司法权;二是“郡”官吏的司法权。通过对传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合考察,可见,两汉“县”司法官吏具有比较广泛的司法权,具体体现为“听告”、“劾罪”、“捕系”、“案验”、“断狱”、“奏谳”及执行权等。两汉时代国家司法权力的启动开始于“告劾”,而汉代法律将“听告”及“劾罪”之权赋予了县层级的司法官吏;县道层级的司法官吏,具有对“听告”及所“劾”的刑事案件的案犯的逮捕、“案验”权,可对所“听告”及所“劾”的刑事案件的案犯实施逮捕,查封、讯问等一系列强制措施;县司法官吏具有对一般普通刑事案件的审判权,县司法官吏具有在审判进行过程中的“讯狱”、“鞫狱”、“论狱”之权;在刑事案件的执行中,县丞、令史、狱史、官啬夫、亭长等具体负责执行工作,包括对刑徒的配送,对罪人财产的查封等;对法律要求上报复核和不能决的疑难案件,县则可以移送“郡”司法官吏处断。“郡”司法官吏的司法权主要体现在“断狱”,决谳、移谳、奏谳,“覆案”,“录囚”,“行县掾狱”及“杂治”等方面。郡司法官吏对犯罪主体具有特殊身份的案件和重大恶性刑事案件可以直接审理;郡司法官吏外出巡县时可直接受理民诉;郡司法官吏对于自己不能“决谳”的疑难案件“皆移廷尉”,可以“奏谳”;郡司法官吏对属县所审理的“死罪”、“过失杀”、“戏杀”案具有“复案”权;对属县(道)听取的“乞鞫”案件具有复审权;郡司法官吏通过“行县录囚”以清理冤狱;郡守通过“行县掾狱”,披阅县(道)长官所处理的刑事案件的“爰书”,监督县官吏的司法活动。此外,郡司法官吏有时也参与“杂治”,与中央大吏一起共同处理一些特殊的刑事案件。 第四章两汉郡县官吏司法权的运行。本章旨在探讨两汉郡县官吏是如何在郡县层级启动、终结和实现国家对刑事案件的司法权的。包括三个大的方面:一是国家司法权力在郡县层级的启动;二是国家司法权力在郡县层级的终结;三是国家司法权力在郡县层级的实现。通过对传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合考察,可见两汉郡县官吏对国家司法权的启动,奉行的是“不告劾不治”的基本原则。在汉代的“告”制中,告的主体包括受害人及其亲属,案件的知情人,“有罪先自告”者;司法官吏对“告”必须进行审查,对于“子告父母、妻告威公,奴婢告主、主父母妻子”,告者没有达到法定年龄及正在服刑期间的刑徒的“告”不予受理;对“诬告”和“告不审”要依法追究刑事责任。县司法官吏“听告”后,一般采取“案验”及“捕系”等刑事侦察措施,也即调查、取证、核实案情、现场勘验、法医检验及捕捉案犯等等。“劾”的主体是县郡司法官吏,汉代郡县司法官吏对犯罪的“劾”一般要经过复杂的“案验”过程之后才提出“劾”状。由于侦查、检察、审判、执行不分的司法体制,使两汉郡县官吏对司法权的启动体现为“被动启动”与“主动启动”相结合的特点。两汉郡县官吏终结刑事司法权的方式一般是审判。法庭审判大致要经过:“传爰书”,即一件刑事案件审理之前,负责刑事案件侦查工作的有关司法官吏,需要将调查所得物证、书证、证人等移送给负责审理案件的司法官吏;“讯狱”,即县郡司法官吏在正式进行法庭审判时所经历的“诘问”程序;“鞫狱”,即经“讯狱”以后对案件事实的判断,确认;“论当”,即法官根据所“鞫”事实引用法律条文,对刑事被告做出判决的司法程序。郡县司法官吏对有权进行判决的刑事案件进行判决后,即转入司法权的实现,即刑事案件的执行阶段。在执行阶段主要涉及的司法过程包括:对罪人家庭财产的查封,没收;对罪人家属的“收”的执行;对死刑犯执行死刑;对徒刑犯“施刑”、“输府”以及对经济刑的执行等等。 第五章两汉郡县官吏司法权的制约。本章旨在探讨在“郡县官吏有专杀之权”的司法格局之下,两汉国家是如何采取立法、行政及监察等方面的措施对郡县官吏的司法权力进行制约的。结合传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合考察,可见两汉国家对郡县官吏司法权的制约体现为法律制约,行政监督和司法监察等方面。法律制约体现在司法权运行的各阶段,国家通过立法对司法官吏渎职罪的规定上。具体而言,司法权启动阶段郡县官吏司法渎职罪的构成包括:“毋告劾而擅覆治”、“劾人不审”、“轻罪重劾”、“以投书言系治人”等;审前强制措施阶段郡县官吏司法渎职罪的构成包括:弗觉知、不胜任、知不告劾、弗言县廷、弗能得、遇盗贼而北、逗留等;刑事案件审理阶段郡县官吏司法渎职罪的构成包括:擅移狱、不直、纵囚、弗穷审、失刑、风吏杀人,漏泄所闻等。行政监督体现在中央政府对地方郡县司法官吏的行政约束上,具体包括:国家设立“诣阙上书”制度允许吏民直诉;中央政府设立“循行”地方的专使制度,特别是“行冤使者循行”地方制度,“理狱平冤”,从而对郡县司法长吏的司法活动形成一定的约束。中央对地方的司法监察则体现在设置刺史等地方监察部门对郡县刑事司法活动进行适时监察以发现地方司法的弊端,纠正地方司法官吏在司法中的违法渎职。此外,国家还设立对吏民“自讼”案件的“覆案”制度,通过对吏民自讼有冤的刑事案件的复审,纠正错案,查处司法渎职官吏,从而对地方郡县司法形成制约。当然,以上这些制度均存在一定的历史局限性。 第六章两汉郡县官吏的司法风格。本章旨在探讨两汉国家司法权的具体执行主体郡县官吏在进行司法运作时所表现的行事风格,工作态度。在两汉历史上,郡县司法官吏的司法风格可谓异彩纷呈,其主要表现为“少文多质”,“谨奉法以治”;“严酷威猛”、“以杀伐立威”及“奉法循理”等等。本章着重对“守文型”、“严酷威猛”型及“奉法循理”的司法风格在两汉的产生发展历程及具体表征进行探讨。结合传世文献资料和简牍资料来看,“守文”型司法风格多见于汉初七十余年;“守文”的表征是严格依法办事。“严酷威猛”型司法风格出现于汉景帝后期,汉武帝时期达到极盛,而且在汉代一直存在。“严酷威猛”司法风格的共通特征是“武健严酷”,具体特征比较复杂。有摧折豪强,不阿权贵,作风凌厉,廉洁奉公、奉职;也有贪污受贿、因缘为市、以杀伐立威、以杀伐为能;还有玩弄法律、任情生杀、倚重“文法”、“舞文巧诋”、“文深”、“文致”等等。“奉法循理”的司法风格出现于汉兴之初,汉宣帝时代成为郡县司法官吏司法风格的主流,并成为后世司法儒家化的楷模。“奉法循理”司法风格是儒家思想由理论走向实践的具体体现。汉代“循吏”身上集中体现了此种风格。“奉法循理”司法风格之具体表征为:以德为本,礼、政、刑综合治理;宽猛相济,事从中道,执经权达;法理结合,情法兼顾等等。 第七章影响两汉郡县官吏司法活动的主要因素。本章旨在探讨对两汉郡县官吏的司法活动产生积极和消极影响的最为显著的因素,其中包括两汉法制路线的变化,法律文化的转型,社会结构的变迁,制度设计本身及皇权等因素。两汉时代的法制路线经历了汉初七十余年的“约法省刑”,汉武帝时期的“严刑法、重酷吏”,汉宣帝时期的“王霸兼杂”,东汉初期的“重德缓刑”进而“尚严酷”,汉章帝时期的全面德化等等。两汉法制路线的每一步变化都对郡县官吏的司法活动产生重要影响。“守文”,“武健严酷”及“奉法循理”等等司法风格、司法态度的形成和发展无不与国家法制路线的变化密切相关。两汉法律文化经历了从汉初以黄学老学为主的多元并举,到汉武帝以后儒家思想的逐渐主流化、主导化的重要转型,其对郡县官吏的司法运作产生了重要的影响。这些影响主要表现为春秋决狱;地方治理的儒家化;司法中的道德感化、人性化;注重调解等等。两汉社会结构的变迁也对郡县官吏的司法活动产生重要影响,特别是地方豪强、宗族势力的坐大对两汉郡县官吏的司法活动产生了不同程度的影响。两汉法律制度的设计本身也影响到郡县官吏的司法活动。当国家考察官吏完全以“能”为标准时,司法官吏追求的是表面的司法高效,伴生的是以杀伐立威,以酷为能。法官责任制度本身的设计及施行状况则直接影响到郡县司法官吏是否依法司法。皇权对国家司法权在郡县层级的运行,存在着积极影响,也存在着消极的影响。当皇帝重视司法公平、公正,依法办事、“慎刑”、“恤狱”时,地方司法状况较好。但皇帝过分重用“能吏”,也造成了郡县官吏对表面的司法效率的追求;皇帝对某些能吏司法不公、司法腐败的放任态度,对人不对事,不以法律为判断是非的依据,授予部分郡县司法官吏“便宜从事”之权等等,均对两汉郡县官吏的司法活动产生消极的影响。

学科:

法律史学

提交日期

2018-01-11

引用参考

胡仁智. 两汉郡县官吏司法权研究[D]. 西南政法大学,2007.

全文附件授权许可

知识共享许可协议-署名

  • dc.title
  • 两汉郡县官吏司法权研究
  • dc.contributor.schoolno
  • 20040000960
  • dc.contributor.author
  • 胡仁智
  • dc.contributor.degree
  • 博士
  • dc.contributor.degreeConferringInstitution
  • 西南政法大学
  • dc.identifier.year
  • 2007
  • dc.contributor.advisor
  • 陈金全
  • dc.contributor.advisorAffiliation
  • 西南政法大学
  • dc.language.iso
  • 中文
  • dc.subject
  • 两汉;郡县制;郡县司法官;司法权;司法活动
  • dc.subject
  • Han Dynasty; The systems of county; County Judicial Bureaucracies; Jurisdictions Of County Bureaucracies; The Processes Of County Judicial Bureaucracies
  • dc.description.abstract
  • 传统中国的国家权力中并不存在现代意义上独立的司法权、司法机构、职业化的法官群体和相对独立的司法运作,但从法人类学的角度来看却存在着司法、司法官吏和司法运行。司法官吏是法律的掌握者和实施者,正是他们将国家法律加以推行和实施,从而实现法律对社会的控制。传统中国社会伴随着法律的产生而产生了司法官,自司法官产生伊始,其就成为倍受关注的对象。司法之人及其对法的施行是中国传统法律文化的核心论题之一。从古老的文化典籍《尚书》到先秦诸子,再到历朝历代,司法之人与法的关系一直是哲人们不断讨论的话题。然而对于中国历史上的司法官吏相关的问题的研究却一直没有受到当代法律史学界的足够重视。汉代是传统中国法制的重要成长时期。汉代法制的成长与其政治体制密切相关。两汉继承了萌芽于春秋、初步形成于战国,确立于秦王朝的以中央集权为核心的“郡县齐民式权力分层分科”的官僚政体,并在此基础上进一步发展,从而形成了以郡县为行政司法重心的地方法政体制。在此法政体制下,郡县“长吏”由中央政府任命,郡县官吏依照国家颁布的统一法律令行使对所辖区域的统治权,其中最重要的是刑事司法权。郡县官吏管辖所辖区域内的普通刑事案件,具有广泛的刑事司法权,他们“听告”、“治狱”、“决狱”并执行各类刑事案件的判决,国家刑事司法权力的启动、终结、实现,大多数情况下是在郡县层级完成的。因此,历史上有所谓汉代“郡县守令有专杀之权”的说法,其比较形象地说明了汉代郡县刑事司法在国家司法体制中的重心地位。而在两汉漫长的四百余年的历史中,随着政治路线、文化路线、社会结构及制度内容本身的发展变迁,有诸多因素对两汉地方司法形成复杂的影响,郡县官吏的“专杀”之权呈现出十分复杂的型态。然而,迄今为止,学界对两汉地方刑事司法的研究却十分薄弱,而更为深入地以郡县官吏的刑事司法权为基点,研究两汉地方司法的论著则基本阙如。因此,本文以两汉郡县官吏的刑事司法权为研究基点,通过对两汉郡县司法重心地位的形成,两汉郡县司法官吏的组成,两汉郡县官吏司法权能的构成,两汉郡县官吏司法权的运行,两汉郡县官吏司法权的制约,两汉郡县官吏的司法风格,影响两汉郡县官吏司法权运行的因素等七大问题的考察,全方位,多层次地描述和解释两汉地方司法制度。 全文由引论、正文、结语构成。正文部分包括七章: 第一章两汉郡县司法重心地位的形成。本章旨在考察两汉郡县司法重心地位形成的历史渊源和现实基础。包括三个大的方面:一是郡县制的萌芽与确立;二是汉以前郡县司法在国家司法体制中的地位;三是两汉郡县司法重心地位的形成及主要表现。自春秋战国以来,随着县制的形成和发展,县逐渐成为地方司法的重心,这种司法权力结构的基本格局一直保持到秦王朝建立以后。汉初的地方司法权力结构依然以县为重心,县是国家司法权力运行的基础和关键环节:县具有对普通刑事案件的侦查、检察、审判、执行权:国家法律对司法程序的规定主要是针对县官吏而设置的。春秋战国时期直至秦王朝和汉初,郡的功能主要是军事上的。“郡”虽然具有一定的司法权,但并不如“县”全面广泛。西汉中期以后,随着中央集权制度的进一步加强,“郡”于国家治理中的地位日益突出,司法权日益扩大,特别是对重大恶性刑事案件的处断方面,“郡”具有了比较大的权力,到汉代后期,甚至出现郡守专权“不委令长”的情况。总体上看,两汉国家的司法权力结构于地方上体现为“郡县守令有专杀之权”,而郡县守令的专杀之权,一般情况下是由法律所规定的。两汉国家司法格局基本上体现为“官吏守文、大臣释滞、皇帝权断”。也即,从法律的规定来看,以郡县“守令”为主体的地方司法官吏主要在法律规定的范围内行使对刑事案件的司法权;以“廷尉”为主体的中央司法官吏则主要发挥“决疑”的功能;皇帝对普通刑事案件的司法权则体现为对郡县官吏不能决的刑事案件的最终处断权,而这些均不同于汉以后逐渐形成的刑事审级制度。 第二章两汉郡县司法官吏的组成。本章旨在考察两汉郡县官吏中那些官吏具有刑事司法权力以及他们之间的权力结构关系。包括两个大方面:一是县司法官吏的组成;二是“郡”司法官吏的组成。通过对传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合分析考辨,可见:两汉具有刑事司法权的县官吏主要包括县(道)令、长,县丞,县尉及县的属吏中的令史、狱史、尉史、士吏、官啬夫、牢监、求盗、贼捕掾、盗曹掾、乡啬夫、亭长(校长)、游徼、乡佐等。县(道)令、长,县丞,县尉是汉代县(道)“长吏”;汉代县令、长,县丞,县尉的刑事司法权来源于法律的规定;县“长吏”在行使刑事司法权时是既合作又分工的关系;汉代县长吏的设置一般情况是每县设一名令(长)、一名县丞、二名县尉(左尉、右尉),但某些特殊的县的丞、尉设置却有所不同;汉代县长吏的任用主要以“功”和“廉”为据,而一些从事基层司法工作的法吏,可以因为司法工作方面的特殊贡献而被破格提升为县长吏。县属吏包括县“长吏”之下的“少吏”和乡、亭吏;各县所属司法官吏在名目上基本统一,具体的设置数目则不等;汉初县属吏之名目和西汉后期及东汉时代相比略有不同,西汉后期至东汉时代,县之属吏名目可能有所变化和增加。具有司法职能的郡官吏主要包括郡守、郡丞、郡守丞、都吏、卒史、督邮、决曹、贼曹掾、书佐等。郡太守、郡“丞”、郡“守丞”的“治狱”、“断狱”、“谳狱”权,于汉初法律有所规定;郡属吏中所包括的“都吏”、“毋害吏”与“督邮”,他们之间既有联系又有区别,从汉初“都吏”的司法权到西汉中后期“督邮”的专门“监县”权,反映了国家对县司法监察力度的加强和“郡”府所属吏员分工的细化;汉初,“郡”府所属法吏的配置与县相比较为单一;西汉中期以后郡的司法官吏的名目有所增加。从汉简反映的情况来看“督邮”、郡“决曹”、“贼曹掾”之类的出现可能是西汉中后期的事,从中可见汉初县的司法重心地位和西汉中期以后,郡的司法官吏权力的扩大。 第三章两汉郡县官吏司法权的构成。本章旨在考察两汉郡县官吏所具有的主要刑事司法权能。包括两个大的方面:一是县官吏的司法权;二是“郡”官吏的司法权。通过对传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合考察,可见,两汉“县”司法官吏具有比较广泛的司法权,具体体现为“听告”、“劾罪”、“捕系”、“案验”、“断狱”、“奏谳”及执行权等。两汉时代国家司法权力的启动开始于“告劾”,而汉代法律将“听告”及“劾罪”之权赋予了县层级的司法官吏;县道层级的司法官吏,具有对“听告”及所“劾”的刑事案件的案犯的逮捕、“案验”权,可对所“听告”及所“劾”的刑事案件的案犯实施逮捕,查封、讯问等一系列强制措施;县司法官吏具有对一般普通刑事案件的审判权,县司法官吏具有在审判进行过程中的“讯狱”、“鞫狱”、“论狱”之权;在刑事案件的执行中,县丞、令史、狱史、官啬夫、亭长等具体负责执行工作,包括对刑徒的配送,对罪人财产的查封等;对法律要求上报复核和不能决的疑难案件,县则可以移送“郡”司法官吏处断。“郡”司法官吏的司法权主要体现在“断狱”,决谳、移谳、奏谳,“覆案”,“录囚”,“行县掾狱”及“杂治”等方面。郡司法官吏对犯罪主体具有特殊身份的案件和重大恶性刑事案件可以直接审理;郡司法官吏外出巡县时可直接受理民诉;郡司法官吏对于自己不能“决谳”的疑难案件“皆移廷尉”,可以“奏谳”;郡司法官吏对属县所审理的“死罪”、“过失杀”、“戏杀”案具有“复案”权;对属县(道)听取的“乞鞫”案件具有复审权;郡司法官吏通过“行县录囚”以清理冤狱;郡守通过“行县掾狱”,披阅县(道)长官所处理的刑事案件的“爰书”,监督县官吏的司法活动。此外,郡司法官吏有时也参与“杂治”,与中央大吏一起共同处理一些特殊的刑事案件。 第四章两汉郡县官吏司法权的运行。本章旨在探讨两汉郡县官吏是如何在郡县层级启动、终结和实现国家对刑事案件的司法权的。包括三个大的方面:一是国家司法权力在郡县层级的启动;二是国家司法权力在郡县层级的终结;三是国家司法权力在郡县层级的实现。通过对传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合考察,可见两汉郡县官吏对国家司法权的启动,奉行的是“不告劾不治”的基本原则。在汉代的“告”制中,告的主体包括受害人及其亲属,案件的知情人,“有罪先自告”者;司法官吏对“告”必须进行审查,对于“子告父母、妻告威公,奴婢告主、主父母妻子”,告者没有达到法定年龄及正在服刑期间的刑徒的“告”不予受理;对“诬告”和“告不审”要依法追究刑事责任。县司法官吏“听告”后,一般采取“案验”及“捕系”等刑事侦察措施,也即调查、取证、核实案情、现场勘验、法医检验及捕捉案犯等等。“劾”的主体是县郡司法官吏,汉代郡县司法官吏对犯罪的“劾”一般要经过复杂的“案验”过程之后才提出“劾”状。由于侦查、检察、审判、执行不分的司法体制,使两汉郡县官吏对司法权的启动体现为“被动启动”与“主动启动”相结合的特点。两汉郡县官吏终结刑事司法权的方式一般是审判。法庭审判大致要经过:“传爰书”,即一件刑事案件审理之前,负责刑事案件侦查工作的有关司法官吏,需要将调查所得物证、书证、证人等移送给负责审理案件的司法官吏;“讯狱”,即县郡司法官吏在正式进行法庭审判时所经历的“诘问”程序;“鞫狱”,即经“讯狱”以后对案件事实的判断,确认;“论当”,即法官根据所“鞫”事实引用法律条文,对刑事被告做出判决的司法程序。郡县司法官吏对有权进行判决的刑事案件进行判决后,即转入司法权的实现,即刑事案件的执行阶段。在执行阶段主要涉及的司法过程包括:对罪人家庭财产的查封,没收;对罪人家属的“收”的执行;对死刑犯执行死刑;对徒刑犯“施刑”、“输府”以及对经济刑的执行等等。 第五章两汉郡县官吏司法权的制约。本章旨在探讨在“郡县官吏有专杀之权”的司法格局之下,两汉国家是如何采取立法、行政及监察等方面的措施对郡县官吏的司法权力进行制约的。结合传世文献资料和简牍资料的综合考察,可见两汉国家对郡县官吏司法权的制约体现为法律制约,行政监督和司法监察等方面。法律制约体现在司法权运行的各阶段,国家通过立法对司法官吏渎职罪的规定上。具体而言,司法权启动阶段郡县官吏司法渎职罪的构成包括:“毋告劾而擅覆治”、“劾人不审”、“轻罪重劾”、“以投书言系治人”等;审前强制措施阶段郡县官吏司法渎职罪的构成包括:弗觉知、不胜任、知不告劾、弗言县廷、弗能得、遇盗贼而北、逗留等;刑事案件审理阶段郡县官吏司法渎职罪的构成包括:擅移狱、不直、纵囚、弗穷审、失刑、风吏杀人,漏泄所闻等。行政监督体现在中央政府对地方郡县司法官吏的行政约束上,具体包括:国家设立“诣阙上书”制度允许吏民直诉;中央政府设立“循行”地方的专使制度,特别是“行冤使者循行”地方制度,“理狱平冤”,从而对郡县司法长吏的司法活动形成一定的约束。中央对地方的司法监察则体现在设置刺史等地方监察部门对郡县刑事司法活动进行适时监察以发现地方司法的弊端,纠正地方司法官吏在司法中的违法渎职。此外,国家还设立对吏民“自讼”案件的“覆案”制度,通过对吏民自讼有冤的刑事案件的复审,纠正错案,查处司法渎职官吏,从而对地方郡县司法形成制约。当然,以上这些制度均存在一定的历史局限性。 第六章两汉郡县官吏的司法风格。本章旨在探讨两汉国家司法权的具体执行主体郡县官吏在进行司法运作时所表现的行事风格,工作态度。在两汉历史上,郡县司法官吏的司法风格可谓异彩纷呈,其主要表现为“少文多质”,“谨奉法以治”;“严酷威猛”、“以杀伐立威”及“奉法循理”等等。本章着重对“守文型”、“严酷威猛”型及“奉法循理”的司法风格在两汉的产生发展历程及具体表征进行探讨。结合传世文献资料和简牍资料来看,“守文”型司法风格多见于汉初七十余年;“守文”的表征是严格依法办事。“严酷威猛”型司法风格出现于汉景帝后期,汉武帝时期达到极盛,而且在汉代一直存在。“严酷威猛”司法风格的共通特征是“武健严酷”,具体特征比较复杂。有摧折豪强,不阿权贵,作风凌厉,廉洁奉公、奉职;也有贪污受贿、因缘为市、以杀伐立威、以杀伐为能;还有玩弄法律、任情生杀、倚重“文法”、“舞文巧诋”、“文深”、“文致”等等。“奉法循理”的司法风格出现于汉兴之初,汉宣帝时代成为郡县司法官吏司法风格的主流,并成为后世司法儒家化的楷模。“奉法循理”司法风格是儒家思想由理论走向实践的具体体现。汉代“循吏”身上集中体现了此种风格。“奉法循理”司法风格之具体表征为:以德为本,礼、政、刑综合治理;宽猛相济,事从中道,执经权达;法理结合,情法兼顾等等。 第七章影响两汉郡县官吏司法活动的主要因素。本章旨在探讨对两汉郡县官吏的司法活动产生积极和消极影响的最为显著的因素,其中包括两汉法制路线的变化,法律文化的转型,社会结构的变迁,制度设计本身及皇权等因素。两汉时代的法制路线经历了汉初七十余年的“约法省刑”,汉武帝时期的“严刑法、重酷吏”,汉宣帝时期的“王霸兼杂”,东汉初期的“重德缓刑”进而“尚严酷”,汉章帝时期的全面德化等等。两汉法制路线的每一步变化都对郡县官吏的司法活动产生重要影响。“守文”,“武健严酷”及“奉法循理”等等司法风格、司法态度的形成和发展无不与国家法制路线的变化密切相关。两汉法律文化经历了从汉初以黄学老学为主的多元并举,到汉武帝以后儒家思想的逐渐主流化、主导化的重要转型,其对郡县官吏的司法运作产生了重要的影响。这些影响主要表现为春秋决狱;地方治理的儒家化;司法中的道德感化、人性化;注重调解等等。两汉社会结构的变迁也对郡县官吏的司法活动产生重要影响,特别是地方豪强、宗族势力的坐大对两汉郡县官吏的司法活动产生了不同程度的影响。两汉法律制度的设计本身也影响到郡县官吏的司法活动。当国家考察官吏完全以“能”为标准时,司法官吏追求的是表面的司法高效,伴生的是以杀伐立威,以酷为能。法官责任制度本身的设计及施行状况则直接影响到郡县司法官吏是否依法司法。皇权对国家司法权在郡县层级的运行,存在着积极影响,也存在着消极的影响。当皇帝重视司法公平、公正,依法办事、“慎刑”、“恤狱”时,地方司法状况较好。但皇帝过分重用“能吏”,也造成了郡县官吏对表面的司法效率的追求;皇帝对某些能吏司法不公、司法腐败的放任态度,对人不对事,不以法律为判断是非的依据,授予部分郡县司法官吏“便宜从事”之权等等,均对两汉郡县官吏的司法活动产生消极的影响。
  • dc.description.abstract
  • The independent jurisdiction, judicial organizations, professional judicial community and judicial processes in modem sense do not exist in Chinese traditional state powers while the justice, judicial bureaucracy and judicial processes from the legal anthropological standpoint do exist. The judicial bureaucracy are the masters and executors of the laws and the laws are pushed and carried into effect by them in order to control the society by the laws. With the genesis of the laws, the judicial community is generated and become the focus by the people form the beginning in Chinese traditional society. The judicial community and the enforcement of laws is one of the kernel theses in Chinese traditional legal cultures. Whatever the Chinese classics Shang Shu, the scholars in prior Qin dynasty and the past dynasties in China, the relationship between the judicial community and the laws is the everlasting discourse by the philosophers. Whereas the studies on judicial bureaucracy in Chinese traditional society is not grasped enough eyes of the contemporary Chinese academia at all times. And the Han dynasty is the crucial period of the development of Chinese legal system. The legal system in Hay dynasty has a consanguineous relationship with its political structure and it was germinated in the Spring and Autumn period, shaped initially in the Warring States Period, established in Qin dynasty which is the delaminating political bureaucracy with the equal authorities in counties under the centralization of the state powers. Furthermore, the county bureaucracy in Han dynasty becomes the important administrative and judicial point of the regional legal and political system from the basis of Qin's system. Therefore beneath the Han's system, the heads of the Counties are appointed by the central government and dominate their regional affairs according to the uniform laws and regulations by the state enacted: And one of the most vital regional authorities is the criminal jurisdiction. The bureaucracy of the county dominates the common criminal cases in his district and has the broad criminal jurisdictions that accept, hear and sentence a case while execute all kinds of criminal judgments. Generally, the start, the end and the actualization of criminal jurisdiction are accomplished in the level of county bureaucracy. So there is an ancient saying which is 'the heads of the counties have the arbitrary power of execution' in Chinese history that indicates the central status of the criminal jurisdiction of the county in Han dynasty under the state judicial system visually. By the variances of the route of polity and cultures and the structures and systems of the society themselves, there is a great variety of factors that impact the development of Han's regional jurisdiction and 'the arbitrary power of execution' of the counties' bureaucracy present a very complicated condition accordingly. However, the Chinese academic studies on criminal jurisdiction of county bureaucracy in Han dynasty have been weak so far, and so the disquisitions on Han's regional jurisdictionare nearly pathless. Wherefore, with the reviews of seven problems in this paper, such as the establishment, the constitution, the composing of the jurisdiction, the processing of the jurisdiction, the checks of the jurisdiction, the judicial style and impacts of Han's county bureaucracy and so on, it depends the criminal jurisdiction of county bureaucracy in Han dynasty as the basic studying point and describes and interprets Han's regional judicial system in complete and multi-aspects. It is comprised of introduction, text and conclusion. The text includes seven chapters as following: ChapterⅠfocus on the establishment of the central status of Han's county bureaucracy with the reviews of its history resources and factual basis. It is comprised of three parts: one is the germination and establishment of the county system; two is the status of jurisdiction of county bureaucracy in state judicial system before Han dynasty; three is the generation and the main forms of this status. With the generation and development of the county system, the counties become the centre of the regional jurisdiction gradually form the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States Period and keep this jurisdiction structure after the foundation of Qin dynasty. Therefore, at the early time in Han dynasty, the centre of the regional jurisdiction structure still locates on the counties. The counties are the most basic and crucial links of the execution of the state jurisdiction and the authorities of the acceptance, judgment, execution, processes by the laws mainly depend on the sets of the designations of the county bureaucracy. In this long period, the functions of Jun (the form of Chinese county) are martial; Xian (another form of Chinese county) has the general and broad jurisdiction though Jun has the certain powers. After the Mid-Han period, Jun stands out from the initial point in the administration and expands its jurisdiction day by day, especially in the proceeding of life-and-death and vicious criminal cases, when the further reinforce of the centralization. And in the evening of Hart dynasty, the heads of Jun eve could have the arbitrary power and do not appoint the other heads of county bureaucracy. Totally, the regional jurisdiction structure in Han dynasty embodies the saying that is 'the heads of the counties have the arbitrary power of execution' and is designed by the laws commonly. The basic situation of Han's jurisdiction is 'strictly abided by administrators, interpreted the hard cases by ministers and arbitrated by the emperor', which is so different from the criminal trial system that shaped gradually after Han dynasty. ChapterⅡfocus on the constitution of county judicial bureaucracy with the reviews of the criminal jurisdiction assignation and the relating authorities structures between them. This chapter includes two questions: one is the constitution of Xian judicial bureaucracy and two is the Jun's. Through the analyzing and synthesizing of the ancient classic and bamboo slips texts and materials, the author considers that the Xian judicial bureaucracy holding the criminal jurisdictions mainly are the Heads of county, Cheng(丞)、Wei(尉) and the clerk of the county magistrate. They are Lingshi(令史)、Yushi(狱史)、Weishi(尉史)、Shili(士吏)、Guansefu(官啬夫)、Laojian(牢监)、Qiudao(求盗)、Zeibuyuan(贼捕掾)、Daocaoyuan(盗曹掾)、Xiangsefu(乡啬夫)、Tingzhang(Jiaozhang)亭长(校长)、Youjiao(游徼)、Xiangzuo (乡佐)and so on. The Heads of countyes, Cheng(丞)、Wei(尉) are the direct bureaucracies of Xian and their jurisdiction authorities rooted in the laws that demand them to execute the criminal jurisdiction in a cooperated and divided way; The direct bureaucracies of Xian's designation are one county mgmagistrate、one Cheng(丞)、two Wei(尉) generally and different designations of Cheng(丞)、Wei(尉) in some peculiar Xian; They are examinated by two standards which are contribution and honest and clean and some of the root bureaucracies may promoted to the directors which are broken the rules as their especial contribution in jurisdiction. And the sub-bureaucracies of Xian are Shaoli(少吏) and Xianglin(乡吏)、Tinglin(亭吏).The designations of Xian's bureaucracies have the uniform items and the different members and comparing with the period of early-Western Han and the later-Western Han or the Eastem Han, the items and members changed and expanded in the later time. Meanwhile the Jun bureaucracies holding the criminal jurisdictions mainly are The Shou、Cheng、Shoucheng of the prefectures and The clerk of the prefectures magistrate. They are Douli(都吏)、Zushi(卒史)、Duyou(督邮)、Juecao(决曹)、Zeicaoyuan(贼曹掾)、Shuzuo(书佐) and so on. The authorities of hearing, judgment and adjudication of The Shou、Cheng、Shoucheng of the prefectures are empowered by the early-Han's laws; The ones appointed by the prefectures are Douli(都吏)、Wuhaili(毋害吏)and Duyou(督邮)。They have a close relationship but are different that Douli(都吏) has the jurisdiction at early time then Duyou(督邮) becomes the unique supervisor of the Jun, which shows that the enforcement of the supervising of Xian's jurisdiction by the central government and the delicated divides of the Jun bureaucracies; The designations of Jun's bureaucracies were simpler than the Xian's and the items and members expanded in the Mid-Han period. According to Han's bamboo slips, the bureaucracies of Duyou(督邮), Juecao(决曹)、Zeicaoyuan(贼曹掾) probably appeared in the Mid or Later-Han period demonstrates that the central status of Xian's jurisdiction in early Han and the expansion of Jun's judicial powers after the Mid-Han period. ChapterⅢfocus on the composing of the jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy with the reviews of the major criminal judicial powers and functions. It discusses the question as following: one is the composing of the jurisdiction of Xian's bureaucracies and two is the Jun's. By author's prudent studies from the texts and materials mentioned above, it is proofed that Xian's bureaucracies have broad judicial authorities in Han dynasty, which are the powers of acceptance and hearing, impeachment, arrest, investigation and adjudication and so on. The laws of Han empower the authorities of hearing and impeachment to the judicial bureaucracies of Xian and they also have the authorities of arrest and investigation according to these cases they are given the powers above and could adopt a serial restraining measure such as arrest, seizure and interrogation etc. The Xian's judicial bureaucracies have the jurisdiction of common criminal cases and are entitled to question, interrogate and judge in the proceeding of jurisdiction. Furthermore, Xiancheng(县丞)、Lingshi(令史)、Yushi(狱史)、Guansefu(官啬夫)、Tinzhang(亭长) so on are in charge of the certain execution in a criminal cases, including sending the prisoners and seizure their belongings etc. And the Xian could transfer the cases that the laws demand them to report and review or the hard ones to the Jun's judicial bureaucracies to adjudicate. The jurisdictions of the Jun's bureaucracies mainly embody in judgments, adjudications, transfers, reports, reviews, records and other assistances and administrations etc. On the contrary, the Jun's judicial bureaucracies could accept the cases that the offenders with the ad hoc status in the society and the life-and-death or vicious criminal ones directly; And when they circuit around the counties, the civil cases may accepted. Meanwhile, the Jun's are entitled to transfer the undecided hard cases to the central judicial bureaucracy('tinwei') that is named "transfers"; and the Jun's have the reviews authorities of capital crime, misfeasance and killing in the playgame in their dominated regions and also the appealing cases in their districts. Through the Jun's of the circuit the Xian's prisons and exam the documentation of sentences written by the Xian's bureaucracies, they would supervise their underlings' jurisdiction. Furthermore, the Jun's sometimes could join the mixed administration with the central bureaucracies to handle the special criminal cases together. ChapterⅣfocus on the proceeding of the jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy in Han dynasty with the discussion of how these bureaucracies start, end and actualize the state jurisdiction of criminal cases. It comprises of three parts: one is the start; two is end and three is the actualization of the jurisdiction. By the author's researches of the voluminous materials, the county bureaucracy pursue the elementary principle of 'no impeachment, no jurisdiction' as the proceeding starts. In the system of 'impeachment' in Han dynasty, the informers includes the victims and their relatives, the insiders of the cases, the crimes who surrender first and the "Tingshili(廷士吏)"; and the judicial bureaucracies must sensor the 'impeachments' in order to dismiss such impeachments that a son v. his parents, a wife v. her father-in-laws, slaves v. their master and his parents and wife or the informers not become of age and are prisoners themselves. At the same time, the authorities must investigate the criminal liabilities that accuse falsely and false accusation without malice. When the Xian's judicial bureaucracy accept an 'impeachment', they may adopt the criminal restraining measures that investigation, i.e. surveying, obtaining, verification, investigation on the spot, coroner's exams and arrests normally. The directors of 'impeachment' are the county bureaucracy with a complicated proceeding that reports the written complaint of 'impeachment'. Therefore, the start of the jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy in Han dynasty represents two combined characters: one is the passive form and another is the active form as the result of the judicial system without the division of investigates inspection, trial and execution. On the opposite side, the way of the end of the jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy in Han is commonly through the trialing. The generate steps are following: sending the documentation of sentences first, i. e. the law-officers who in charge of the investigation should send the physical and documentary evidences and witnesses to the judges. Then, 'questioning' is the formal procedure when the county bureaucracies make the 'cross-exam' in the court; 'judgment' is the step to identify the facts about the case; and 'adjudication' is the one to quote the laws by the identified facts then give a judgment; the last one is the procedure of execution of the criminal cases, i. e. the actualization of the jurisdiction after the county bureaucracies enable to make a judgment, which is mainly including: the seizure and confiscation of the families' belongings of the offenders; pronouncing the execution to the relatives; carrying out the death penalty; transferring the ones who are given the imprisonment; the execution of economic punishments and so on. ChapterⅤfocus on the checks of the jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy in Han dynasty with reviews of how the state adopt the legislative, administrative and supervising measures to check the judicial powers of the county bureaucracy under the situation of 'the heads of the counties have the arbitrary power of execution'. Through the author's studies, the checks of these powers in Han embody in some aspects: the rules of laws, the supervising of administration and jurisdiction. Firstly, the laws of Han rule the crimes of malfeasance of the county bureaucracy in the processes of the jurisdiction, specific way are following: no impeachment but hearing judged not by the trialing or misdemeanor with the excess punishments or punish the informers in the starting procedure; unawareness, incompetence, acceptance without the judgment, "fuyanxianting(弗言县廷)"、"funengde(弗能得)" and sojourn etc. in the restraining measures adaptation; transferring without authorities, injustice, release a prisoner privately "fuqiongshen(弗穷审)"、"shixing(失刑)"、"fenglisharen (风吏杀人) ", blowing and gaffing in a trial. Secondly, the checks of the administration carry out the ways that the central government restraint the actions of the county bureaucracy including the specific policies below: to set up the system of "Yiqueshangshu(诣阙上书)" for the officers and the people to appealing directly; to set up the system of circuit special envoy to correct the injustice cases for binding the actions of the directors of the county bureaucracy. Lastly, the checks of the central government embody that it assign the bureaucracy of "cishi" to restrict the criminal jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy and find out the illegal actions and misfeasance. Moreover, the central government put out the system of private prosecution to double-rule the officers and the people with the procedures of reviews the injustice cases, corrects the wrong judgments, punish the misconduct officers for the same purpose. However, all the systems set up in Han have the historical demerits. ChapterⅥfocus on the judicial styles of the county bureaucracy in Han dynasty with reviews of the styles and attitudes concerning the jurisdiction in execution. In the period of Han dynasty, the styles of jurisdiction are various and different but the main aspect is 'more question and less evidences', 'strictly abided by the laws', 'ferocious and powerful punishment', 'to build the authority by killing' and 'keep the principles of natural laws', etc. This chapter emphasizes on three of the styles above in order to show the development and the specific characters of Han's jurisdiction styles. Furthermore, the style of 'ferocious' appeared in the evening of the domination of Emperor Han Jingdi and flourished in the period of Emperor Han Wudi and handed down until the end of Han dynasty. The jurisdiction of 'cruel officers' share the common trait that is ferocious but have a complicated and different specifications: some of them are overwhelming the despots, looking coldly on the authorities and nobles, effective workings, honest and clean, keeping on duties; and others are corrupted and taking the bribes, building the personal authorities and capabilities by killing, against the laws, giving life or death by emotions, depending on misinterpret the written documents to frame the innocence into the prison. Surprisingly, the 'cruel officers' are heaven and earth different about their moral principles. Otherwise, the style of 'keep the principles of natural laws' initiated in the early-Han, streamed in the period of Emperor Han Xuandi and carried on in the end of Han, which affected the Confucian jurisdiction. This style of jurisdiction originate form the Confucianism and this kind of officers bring it into the judicial practice in Han dynasty. The community share the common point mentioned above which are the principles of state and policy, nobles and minister, laws and jurisdiction and the axiom and justice of the society. And the specific policies are following: virtue as the foundation; courtesy, administration and laws as the measures with the attitudes of the systemization of tolerance and punishment, keeping the golden means, depending, on the classics and enforcing the powers, taking the laws and principles, the affection and rules into a prudent consideration. ChapterⅦfocus on the major factors that impact the actions of the county bureaucracy in Han dynasty with the reviews of the factors which bring the active or passive impacts on the jurisdiction including the varieties of the political and legal aims, the transformation of legal cultures, the changes of the social structures, the designation of systems and royal power etc. The policies of jurisdiction in Han were pushed by the emperors that 'tolerance' in early-Han, 'cruel officers and ferocious punishments' in Wudi, 'combination of Confucianism and Legalism' in Xuandi, 'virtue first' to 'penalty first' in early-Eastern Han and the total Confucianism rules etc. Therefore, every direction changes have a close relationship with the styles, the attitudes of the jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy. The legal cultures in Han whirled from the Taoism-basis to multi-policies then stream into the Confucianism after Wudi that heavily impact the processes of the county's jurisdiction. Wherein, the certain practice are that adjudicating suits in line with the spirit of 'Spring and Autumn' and other Conficianist classics, regional administrating by the Confucianism, moralizing and humanizing in jurisdiction and emphasizing on the peacemaking etc. Meanwhile, the social structures fluxes also bring a significant effect on the jurisdiction, especially the expanding of regional despots and patriarchal clans, the squires by annexing the lands and the development of influential dealers that affect the jurisdiction in somewhat extent. Thirdly, another factor that affecting is the legal systems themselves in Han dynasty. As the 'contribution' as the standards of examining the officers, the officers have to chase the superficial high effectiveness through the way of building their authorities and capabilities by killing and cruelty. Therefore, the designation of the responsibility system of the courts itself affects the condition that the county bureaucracy would be abided by the laws directly. Last factor that give the active and passive affection on the jurisdiction of the county bureaucracy would be the royal power. The emperor betters the justice, the laws, and the punishment; the conditions of the regional jurisdiction would be better. By the contrast, if the emperor take a blinding eye on some officers that are injustice, corruptive, superficial effective and beyond the laws, or even partly empower the 'arbitrary' to the county bureaucracies would be one of the vital reasons of the 'catabolization' of jurisdicti'on of the county bureaucracy in Han dynasty.
  • dc.subject.discipline
  • D929
  • dc.date.issued
  • 2007-03-01
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